Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae

Objection 1: It would seem that the religious life of those who live in community is more perfect than that of those who lead a solitary life. For it is written (Eccles. 4:9): "It is better . . . that two should be together, than one; for they have the advantage of their society." Therefore the religious life of those who live in community would seem to be more perfect.

Objection 2: Further, it is written (Mt. 18:20): "Where there are two or three gathered together in My name, there am I in the midst of them." But nothing can be better than the fellowship of Christ. Therefore it would seem better to live in community than in solitude.

Objection 3: Further, the vow of obedience is more excellent than the other religious vows; and humility is most acceptable to God. Now obedience and humility are better observed in company than in solitude; for Jerome says (Ep. cxxv ad Rustic. Monach.): "In solitude pride quickly takes man unawares, he sleeps as much as he will, he does what he likes"; whereas when instructing one who lives in community, he says: "You may not do what you will, you must eat what you are bidden to eat, you may possess so much as you receive, you must obey one you prefer not to obey, you must be a servant to your brethren, you must fear the superior of the monastery as God, love him as a father." Therefore it would seem that the religious life of those who live in community is more perfect than that of those who lead a solitary life.

Objection 4: Further, our Lord said (Lk. 11:33): "No man lighteth a candle and putteth it in a hidden place, nor under a bushel." Now those who lead a solitary life are seemingly in a hidden place, and to be doing no good to any man. Therefore it would seem that their religious life is not more perfect.

Objection 5: Further, that which is in accord with man's nature is apparently more pertinent to the perfection of virtue. But man is naturally a social animal, as the Philosopher says (Polit. i, 1). Therefore it would seem that to lead a solitary life is not more perfect than to lead a community life.

On the contrary, Augustine says (De oper. Monach. xxiii) that "those are holier who keep themselves aloof from the approach of all, and give their whole mind to a life of prayer."

I answer that, Solitude, like poverty, is not the essence of perfection, but a means thereto. Hence in the Conferences of the Fathers (Coll. i, 7) the Abbot Moses says that "solitude," even as fasting and other like things, is "a sure means of acquiring purity of heart." Now it is evident that solitude is a means adapted not to action but to contemplation, according to Osee 2:14, "I . . . will lead her into solitude ; and I will speak to her heart." Wherefore it is not suitable to those religious orders that are directed to the works whether corporal or spiritual of the active life; except perhaps for a time, after the example of Christ, Who as Luke relates (6:12), "went out into a mountain to pray; and He passed the whole night in the prayer of God." On the other hand, it is suitable to those religious orders that are directed to contemplation.

It must, however, be observed that what is solitary should be self-sufficing by itself. Now such a thing is one "that lacks nothing," and this belongs to the idea of a perfect thing . Wherefore solitude befits the contemplative who has already attained to perfection. This happens in two ways: in one way by the gift only of God, as in the case of John the Baptist, who was "filled with the Holy Ghost even from his mother's womb" (Lk. 1:11), so that he was in the desert even as a boy; in another way by the practice of virtuous action, according to Heb. 5:14: "Strong meat is for the perfect; for them who by custom have their senses exercised to the discerning of good and evil."

Now man is assisted in this practice by the fellowship of others in two ways. First, as regards his intellect, to the effect of his being instructed in that which he has to contemplate; wherefore Jerome says (ad Rustic. Monach., Ep. cxxv): "It pleases me that you have the fellowship of holy men, and teach not yourself. Secondly, as regards the affections, seeing that man's noisome affections are restrained by the example and reproof which he receives from others; for as Gregory says (Moral. xxx, 23), commenting on the words, "To whom I have given a house in the wilderness" (Job 39:6), "What profits solitude of the body, if solitude of the heart be lacking?" Hence a social life is necessary for the practice of perfection. Now solitude befits those who are already perfect; wherefore Jerome says (ad Rustic. Monach., Ep. cxxv): "Far from condemning the solitary life, we have often commended it. But we wish the soldiers who pass from the monastic school to be such as not to be deterred by the hard noviciate of the desert, and such as have given proof of their conduct for a considerable time.

Accordingly, just as that which is already perfect surpasses that which is being schooled in perfection, so the life of the solitaries, if duly practiced, surpasses the community life. But if it be undertaken without the aforesaid practice, it is fraught with very great danger, unless the grace of God supply that which others acquire by practice, as in the case of the Blessed Antony and the Blessed Benedict.

Reply to Objection 1: Solomon shows that two are better than one, on account of the help which one affords the other either by "lifting him" up, or by "warming him," i.e. giving him spiritual heat (Eccles. 4:10,11). But those who have already attained to perfection do not require this help.

Reply to Objection 2: According to 1 Jn. 4:16, "He that abideth in charity abideth in God and God in him." Wherefore just as Christ is in the midst of those who are united together in the fellowship of brotherly love, so does He dwell in the heart of the man who devotes himself to divine contemplation through love of God.

Reply to Objection 3: Actual obedience is required of those who need to be schooled according to the direction of others in the attainment of perfection; but those who are already perfect are sufficiently "led by the spirit of God" so that they need not to obey others actually. Nevertheless they have obedience in the preparedness of the mind.

Reply to Objection 4: As Augustine says (De Civ. Dei xix, 19), "no one is forbidden to seek the knowledge of truth, for this pertains to a praiseworthy leisure." That a man be placed "on a candlestick," does not concern him but his superiors, and "if this burden is not placed on us," as Augustine goes on to say (De Civ. Dei xix, 19), "we must devote ourselves to the contemplation of truth," for which purpose solitude is most helpful. Nevertheless, those who lead a solitary life are most useful to mankind. Hence, referring to them, Augustine says (De Morib. Eccl. xxxi): "They dwell in the most lonely places, content to live on water and the bread that is brought to them from time to time, enjoying colloquy with God to whom they have adhered with a pure mind. To some they seem to have renounced human intercourse more than is right: but these understand not how much such men profit us by the spirit of their prayers, what an example to us is the life of those whom we are forbidden to see in the body."

Reply to Objection 5: A man may lead a solitary life for two motives. one is because he is unable, as it were, to bear with human fellowship on account of his uncouthness of mind; and this is beast-like. The other is with a view to adhering wholly to divine things; and this is superhuman. Hence the Philosopher says (Polit. i, 1) that "he who associates not with others is either a beast or a god," i.e. a godly man.

Articulus 8

Argumentum 1

Ad octavum sic proceditur. Videtur quod perfectior sit religio in societate viventium quam agentium solitariam vitam.

Dicitur enim Eccle. IV, melius est duos esse quam unum, habent enim emolumentum societatis suae.

Ergo videtur perfectior esse religio in societate viventium.

Argumentum 2

Praeterea, Matth. XVIII dicitur, ubi fuerint duo vel tres congregati in nomine meo, ibi sum ego in medio eorum.

Sed nihil potest esse melius quam christi societas. Ergo videtur quod vivere in congregatione sit melius quam ducere solitariam vitam.

Argumentum 3

Praeterea, inter alia religionis vota, votum obedientiae excellentius est, et humilitas est maxime deo accepta.

Sed obedientia et humilitas magis observatur in communi conversatione quam in solitudine.

Dicit enim Hieronymus, in epistola ad rusticum monachum, in solitudine cito subrepit superbia, dormit quando voluerit, facit quod voluerit.

E contrario autem ipse docet eum qui in societate vivit, dicens, non facias quod vis, comedas quod iuberis, habeas quantum acceperis, subiiciaris cui non vis, servias fratribus, praepositum monasterii timeas ut deum, diligas ut parentem.

Ergo videtur quod religio viventium in societate sit perfectior ea quae solitariam vitam agit.

Argumentum 4

Praeterea, dominus dicit, Luc. XI, nemo accendit lucernam et in abscondito ponit, neque sub modio.

Sed illi qui solitariam vitam agunt, videntur esse in abscondito positi, nihil utilitatis hominibus afferentes. Ergo videtur quod eorum religio non sit perfectior.

Argumentum 5

Praeterea, id quod est contra naturam hominis, non videtur ad perfectionem virtutis pertinere. Sed homo naturaliter est animal sociale, ut philosophus dicit, in I polit..

Ergo videtur quod agere solitariam vitam non sit perfectius quam agere vitam socialem.

Sed Contra

Sed contra est quod Augustinus, in libro de operibus monach., illos sanctiores esse dicit qui, a conspectu hominum separati, nulli ad se praebent accessum, viventes in magna intentione orationum.

Corpus

Respondeo dicendum quod solitudo, sicut et paupertas, non est ipsa essentia perfectionis, sed perfectionis instrumentum, unde in collationibus patrum, dicit abbas Moyses quod pro puritate cordis, solitudo sectanda est, sicut et ieiunia et alia huiusmodi. Manifestum est autem quod solitudo non est instrumentum congruum actioni, sed contemplationi, secundum illud Osee II, ducam eam in solitudinem, et loquar ad cor eius.

Unde non congruit religionibus quae sunt ordinatae ad opera vitae activae, sive corporalia sive spiritualia, nisi forte ad tempus, exemplo christi qui, ut dicitur Luc. VI, exiit in montem orare et erat pernoctans in oratione dei.

Competit autem religionibus quae sunt ad contemplationem ordinatae. Considerandum tamen est quod id quod est solitarium, debet esse sibi per se sufficiens. Hoc autem est cui nihil deest, quod pertinet ad rationem perfecti. Et ideo solitudo competit contemplanti qui iam ad perfectum pervenit. Quod quidem contingit dupliciter. Uno modo, ex solo divino munere, sicut patet de ioanne baptista, qui fuit repletus spiritu sancto adhuc ex utero matris suae; unde et cum adhuc puer esset, erat in desertis, ut dicitur Luc. I.

Alio modo, per exercitium virtuosi actus, secundum illud Heb. V, perfectorum est solidus cibus, eorum qui pro consuetudine exercitatos habent sensus ad discretionem boni et mali.

Ad exercitium autem huiusmodi iuvatur homo ex aliorum societate, dupliciter. Uno modo, quantum ad intellectum, ut instruatur in his quae sunt contemplanda, unde Hieronymus dicit, ad rusticum monachum, mihi placet ut habeas sacrum contubernium, nec ipse te doceas.

Secundo, quantum ad affectum, ut scilicet noxiae affectiones hominis reprimantur exemplo et correctione aliorum, quia ut dicit Gregorius, XXX Moral., super illud, cui dedi in solitudine domum, quid prodest solitudo corporis, si solitudo defuerit cordis? et ideo vita socialis necessaria est ad exercitium perfectionis, solitudo autem competit iam perfectis.

Unde Hieronymus dicit, ad rusticum monachum, solitariam vitam comprehendimus minime, quam semper laudabimus, sed de ludo monasteriorum huiusmodi volumus egredi milites quos rudimenta non terreant, qui specimen conversationis suae multo tempore dederint.

Sicut igitur id quod iam perfectum est, praeeminet ei quod ad perfectionem exercetur; ita vita solitariorum, si debite assumatur, praeeminet vitae sociali. Si autem absque praecedenti exercitio talis vita assumatur, est periculosissima, nisi per divinam gratiam suppleatur quod in aliis per exercitium acquiritur, sicut patet de beatis Antonio et benedicto.

Ad 1

Ad primum ergo dicendum quod Salomon ostendit melius esse quod sint duo simul quam unus, propter auxilium quod unus habet ab alio, vel ad sublevandum vel ad fovendum vel ad spiritualiter calefaciendum. Quo quidem auxilio iam non indigent qui sunt perfectionem assecuti.

Ad 2

Ad secundum dicendum quod, sicut dicitur I Ioan. IV, qui manet in caritate, in deo manet, et deus in eo.

Sicut ergo christus est in medio eorum qui sibi invicem per dilectionem proximi sociantur, ita habitat in corde eius qui divinae contemplationi insistit per dilectionem dei.

Ad 3

Ad tertium dicendum quod actu obedire est necessarium his qui indigent exerceri secundum directionem aliorum ad perfectionem capiendam. Sed illi qui iam perfecti sunt, spiritu dei sufficienter aguntur, ut non indigeant actu aliis obedire.

Habent tamen obedientiam in praeparatione animi.

Ad 4

Ad quartum dicendum quod, sicut Augustinus dicit, in XIX de CIV. Dei, a studio cognoscendae veritatis nemo prohibetur, quod ad laudabile pertinet otium.

Quod autem aliquis super candelabrum ponatur, non pertinet ad ipsum, sed ad eius superiores. Quae sarcina si non imponatur, ut Augustinus ibidem subdit, contemplandae veritati vacandum est, ad quam plurimum valet solitudo. Et tamen illi qui solitariam vitam agunt, multum utiles sunt generi humano. Unde Augustinus dicit, in libro de moribus ecclesiae, de his loquens, pane solo, qui eis per certa intervalla temporum affertur, et aqua contenti, desertissimas terras incolunt, perfruentes colloquio dei, cui puris mentibus inhaeserunt. Videntur autem nonnullis res humanas plus quam oporteret deseruisse, non intelligentibus quantum nobis eorum animus in orationibus prosit, et vita ad exemplum, quorum corpora videre non sinimur.

Ad 5

Ad quintum dicendum quod homo potest solitarius vivere dupliciter.

Uno modo, quasi societatem humanam non ferens propter animi saevitiam, et hoc est bestiale. Alio modo, per hoc quod totaliter divinis rebus inhaeret, et hoc est supra hominem.

Et ideo philosophus dicit, in I polit., quod ille qui aliis non communicat, est bestia aut deus, idest divinus vir.