Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae

Objection 1: It seems that martyrdom is not an act of the greatest perfection. For seemingly that which is a matter of counsel and not of precept pertains to perfection, because, to wit, it is not necessary for salvation. But it would seem that martyrdom is necessary for salvation, since the Apostle says (Rm. 10:10), "With the heart we believe unto justice, but with the mouth confession is made unto salvation," and it is written (1 Jn. 3:16), that "we ought to lay down our lives for the brethren." Therefore martyrdom does not pertain to perfection.

Objection 2: Further, it seems to point to greater perfection that a man give his soul to God, which is done by obedience, than that he give God his body, which is done by martyrdom: wherefore Gregory says (Moral. xxxv) that "obedience is preferable to all sacrifices." Therefore martyrdom is not an act of the greatest perfection.

Objection 3: Further, it would seem better to do good to others than to maintain oneself in good, since the "good of the nation is better than the good of the individual," according to the Philosopher (Ethic. i, 2). Now he that suffers martyrdom profits himself alone, whereas he that teaches does good to many. Therefore the act of teaching and guiding subjects is more perfect than the act of martyrdom.

On the contrary, Augustine (De Sanct. Virgin. xlvi) prefers martyrdom to virginity which pertains to perfection. Therefore martyrdom seems to belong to perfection in the highest degree.

I answer that, We may speak of an act of virtue in two ways. First, with regard to the species of that act, as compared to the virtue proximately eliciting it. In this way martyrdom, which consists in the due endurance of death, cannot be the most perfect of virtuous acts, because endurance of death is not praiseworthy in itself, but only in so far as it is directed to some good consisting in an act of virtue, such as faith or the love of God, so that this act of virtue being the end is better.

A virtuous act may be considered in another way, in comparison with its first motive cause, which is the love of charity, and it is in this respect that an act comes to belong to the perfection of life, since, as the Apostle says (Col. 3:14), that "charity . . . is the bond of perfection." Now, of all virtuous acts martyrdom is the greatest proof of the perfection of charity: since a man's love for a thing is proved to be so much the greater, according as that which he despises for its sake is more dear to him, or that which he chooses to suffer for its sake is more odious. But it is evident that of all the goods of the present life man loves life itself most, and on the other hand he hates death more than anything, especially when it is accompanied by the pains of bodily torment, "from fear of which even dumb animals refrain from the greatest pleasures," as Augustine observes (Questions 83, qu. 36). And from this point of view it is clear that martyrdom is the most perfect of human acts in respect of its genus, as being the sign of the greatest charity, according to Jn. 15:13: "Greater love than this no man hath, that a man lay down his life for his friends."

Reply to Objection 1: There is no act of perfection, which is a matter of counsel, but what in certain cases is a matter of precept, as being necessary for salvation. Thus Augustine declares (De Adult. Conjug. xiii) that a man is under the obligation of observing continency, through the absence or sickness of his wife. Hence it is not contrary to the perfection of martyrdom if in certain cases it be necessary for salvation, since there are cases when it is not necessary for salvation to suffer martyrdom; thus we read of many holy martyrs who through zeal for the faith or brotherly love gave themselves up to martyrdom of their own accord. As to these precepts, they are to be understood as referring to the preparation of the mind.

Reply to Objection 2: Martyrdom embraces the highest possible degree of obedience, namely obedience unto death; thus we read of Christ (Phil. 2:8) that He became "obedient unto death." Hence it is evident that martyrdom is of itself more perfect than obedience considered absolutely.

Reply to Objection 3: This argument considers martyrdom according to the proper species of its act, whence it derives no excellence over all other virtuous acts; thus neither is fortitude more excellent than all virtues.

Articulus 3

Argumentum 1

Ad tertium sic proceditur. Videtur quod martyrium non sit actus maximae perfectionis. Illud enim ad perfectionem vitae videtur pertinere quod cadit sub consilio, non sub praecepto, quia scilicet non est de necessitate salutis. Sed martyrium videtur esse de necessitate salutis, dicit enim apostolus, Rom. X, corde creditur ad iustitiam, ore autem fit confessio ad salutem; et I ioann. III dicitur quod nos debemus pro fratribus animam ponere.

Ergo martyrium non pertinet ad perfectionem.

Argumentum 2

Praeterea, ad maiorem perfectionem pertinere videtur quod aliquis det deo animam, quod fit per obedientiam, quam quod det deo proprium corpus, quod fit per martyrium, unde Gregorius dicit, ult. Moral., quod obedientia cunctis victimis praefertur.

Ergo martyrium non est actus maximae perfectionis.

Argumentum 3

Praeterea, melius esse videtur aliis prodesse quam seipsum in bono conservare, quia bonum gentis melius est quam bonum unius hominis, secundum philosophum, in I ethic..

Sed ille qui martyrium sustinet, sibi soli prodest, ille autem qui docet, proficit multis. Ergo actus docendi et gubernandi subditos est perfectior quam actus martyrii.

Sed Contra

Sed contra est quod Augustinus, in libro de sancta virginit., praefert martyrium virginitati, quae ad perfectionem pertinet.

Ergo videtur martyrium maxime ad perfectionem pertinere.

Corpus

Respondeo dicendum quod de aliquo actu virtutis dupliciter loqui possumus. Uno modo, secundum speciem ipsius actus, prout comparatur ad virtutem proxime elicientem ipsum. Et sic non potest esse quod martyrium, quod consistit in debita tolerantia mortis, sit perfectissimus inter virtutis actus. Quia tolerare mortem non est laudabile secundum se, sed solum secundum quod ordinatur ad aliquod bonum quod consistit in actu virtutis, puta ad fidem et dilectionem dei. Unde ille actus virtutis, cum sit finis, melior est. Alio modo potest considerari actus virtutis secundum quod comparatur ad primum motivum, quod est amor caritatis.

Et ex hac parte praecipue aliquis actus habet quod ad perfectionem vitae pertineat, quia, ut apostolus dicit, Coloss. III, caritas est vinculum perfectionis.

Martyrium autem, inter omnes actus virtuosos, maxime demonstrat perfectionem caritatis. Quia tanto magis ostenditur aliquis aliquam rem amare, quanto pro ea rem magis amatam contemnit, et rem magis odiosam eligit pati. Manifestum est autem quod inter omnia alia bona praesentis vitae, maxime amat homo ipsam vitam, et e contrario maxime odit ipsam mortem, et praecipue cum doloribus corporalium tormentorum, quorum metu etiam bruta animalia a maximis voluptatibus absterrentur, ut Augustinus dicit, in libro octoginta trium quaest..

Et secundum hoc patet quod martyrium inter ceteros actus humanos est perfectior secundum suum genus, quasi maximae caritatis signum, secundum illud Ioan. XV, maiorem caritatem nemo habet quam ut animam suam ponat quis pro amicis suis.

Ad 1

Ad primum ergo dicendum quod nullus est actus perfectionis sub consilio cadens qui in aliquo eventu non cadat sub praecepto, quasi de necessitate salutis existens, sicut Augustinus dicit, in libro de adulterinis coniugiis, quod aliquis incidit in necessitatem continentiae servandae propter absentiam vel infirmitatem uxoris.

Et ideo non est contra perfectionem martyrii si in aliquo casu sit de necessitate salutis. Est enim aliquis casus in quo martyrium perferre non est de necessitate salutis, puta cum ex zelo fidei et caritate fraterna multoties leguntur sancti martyres sponte se obtulisse martyrio. Illa autem praecepta sunt intelligenda secundum praeparationem animi.

Ad 2

Ad secundum dicendum quod martyrium complectitur id quod summum in obedientia esse potest, ut scilicet aliquis sit obediens usque ad mortem, sicut de christo legitur, philipp. II, quod factus est obediens usque ad mortem.

Unde patet quod martyrium secundum se est perfectius quam obedientia absolute dicta.

Ad 3

Ad tertium dicendum quod ratio illa procedit de martyrio secundum propriam speciem actus, ex qua non habet excellentiam inter omnes actus virtutum, sicut nec fortitudo est excellentior inter omnes virtutes.