Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae

Objection 1: It would seem that volition is not of the means, but of the end only. For the Philosopher says (Ethic. iii, 2) that "volition is of the end, while choice is of the means."

Objection 2: Further, "For objects differing in genus there are corresponding different powers of the soul" (Ethic. vi, 1). Now, the end and the means are in different genera of good: because the end, which is a good either of rectitude or of pleasure, is in the genus "quality," or "action," or "passion"; whereas the good which is useful, and is directed to and end, is in the genus "relation" (Ethic. i, 6). Therefore, if volition is of the end, it is not of the means.

Objection 3: Further, habits are proportionate to powers, since they are perfections thereof. But in those habits which are called practical arts, the end belongs to one, and the means to another art; thus the use of a ship, which is its end, belongs to the (art of the) helmsman; whereas the building of the ship, which is directed to the end, belongs to the art of the shipwright. Therefore, since volition is of the end, it is not of the means.

On the contrary, In natural things, it is by the same power that a thing passes through the middle space, and arrives at the terminus. But the means are a kind of middle space, through which one arrives at the end or terminus. Therefore, if volition is of the end, it is also of the means.

I answer that, The word "voluntas" sometimes designates the power of the will, sometimes its act . Accordingly, if we speak of the will as a power, thus it extends both to the end and to the means. For every power extends to those things in which may be considered the aspect of the object of that power in any way whatever: thus the sight extends to all things whatsoever that are in any way colored. Now the aspect of good, which is the object of the power of the will, may be found not only in the end, but also in the means.

If, however, we speak of the will in regard to its act, then, properly speaking, volition is of the end only. Because every act denominated from a power, designates the simple act of that power: thus "to understand" designates the simple act of the understanding. Now the simple act of a power is referred to that which is in itself the object of that power. But that which is good and willed in itself is the end. Wherefore volition, properly speaking, is of the end itself. On the other hand, the means are good and willed, not in themselves, but as referred to the end. Wherefore the will is directed to them, only in so far as it is directed to the end: so that what it wills in them, is the end. Thus, to understand, is properly directed to things that are known in themselves, i.e. first principles: but we do not speak of understanding with regard to things known through first principles, except in so far as we see the principles in those things. For in morals the end is what principles are in speculative science (Ethic. viii, 8).

Reply to Objection 1: The Philosopher is speaking of the will in reference to the simple act of the will; not in reference to the power of the will.

Reply to Objection 2: There are different powers for objects that differ in genus and are on an equality; for instance, sound and color are different genera of sensibles, to which are referred hearing and sight. But the useful and the righteous are not on an equality, but are as that which is of itself, and that which is in relation to another. Now such like objects are always referred to the same power; for instance, the power of sight perceives both color and light by which color is seen.

Reply to Objection 3: Not everything that diversifies habits, diversifies the powers: since habits are certain determinations of powers to certain special acts. Moreover, every practical art considers both the end and the means. For the art of the helmsman does indeed consider the end, as that which it effects; and the means, as that which it commands. On the other hand, the ship-building art considers the means as that which it effects; but it considers that which is the end, as that to which it refers what it effects. And again, in every practical art there is an end proper to it and means that belong properly to that art.

Articulus 2

Argumentum 1

Ad secundum sic proceditur. Videtur quod voluntas non sit eorum quae sunt ad finem, sed tantum finis.

Dicit enim philosophus, in III ethic., quod voluntas est finis, electio autem eorum quae sunt ad finem.

Argumentum 2

Praeterea, ad ea quae sunt diversa genere, diversae potentiae animae ordinantur, ut dicitur in VI ethic..

Sed finis et ea quae sunt ad finem sunt in diverso genere boni, nam finis, qui est bonum honestum vel delectabile, est in genere qualitatis, vel actionis aut passionis; bonum autem quod dicitur utile, quod est ad finem, est in ad aliquid, ut dicitur in I ethic..

Ergo, si voluntas est finis, non erit eorum quae sunt ad finem.

Argumentum 3

Praeterea, habitus proportionantur potentis, cum sint earum perfectiones. Sed in habitibus qui dicuntur artes operativae, ad aliud pertinet finis, et ad aliud quod est ad finem, sicut ad gubernatorem pertinet usus navis, qui est finis eius; ad navifactivam vero constructio navis, quae est propter finem.

Ergo, cum voluntas sit finis, non erit eorum quae sunt ad finem.

Sed Contra

Sed contra est, quia in rebus naturalibus per eandem potentiam aliquid pertransit media, et pertingit ad terminum. Sed ea quae sunt ad finem, sunt quaedam media per quae pervenitur ad finem sicut ad terminum. Ergo, si voluntas est finis, ipsa etiam est eorum quae sunt ad finem.

Corpus

Respondeo dicendum quod voluntas quandoque dicitur ipsa potentia qua volumus; quandoque autem ipse voluntatis actus.

Si ergo loquamur de voluntate secundum quod nominat potentiam, sic se extendit et ad finem, et ad ea quae sunt ad finem. Ad ea enim se extendit unaquaeque potentia, in quibus inveniri potest quocumque modo ratio sui obiecti, sicut visus se extendit ad omnia quaecumque participant quocumque modo colorem. Ratio autem boni, quod est obiectum potentiae voluntatis, invenitur non solum in fine, sed etiam in his quae sunt ad finem.

Si autem loquamur de voluntate secundum quod nominat proprie actum, sic, proprie loquendo, est finis tantum. Omnis enim actus denominatus a potentia, nominat simplicem actum illius potentiae, sicut intelligere nominat simplicem actum intellectus.

Simplex autem actus potentiae est in id quod est secundum se obiectum potentiae. Id autem quod est propter se bonum et volitum, est finis. Unde voluntas proprie est ipsius finis. Ea vero quae sunt ad finem, non sunt bona vel volita propter seipsa, sed ex ordine ad finem. Unde voluntas in ea non fertur, nisi quatenus fertur in finem, unde hoc ipsum quod in eis vult, est finis.

Sicut et intelligere proprie est eorum quae secundum se cognoscuntur, scilicet principiorum, eorum autem quae cognoscuntur per principia, non dicitur esse intelligentia, nisi inquantum in eis ipsa principia considerantur, sic enim se habet finis in appetibilibus, sicut se habet principium in intelligibilibus, ut dicitur in VII ethic..

Ad 1

Ad primum ergo dicendum quod philosophus loquitur de voluntate, secundum quod proprie nominat simplicem actum voluntatis, non autem secundum quod nominat potentiam.

Ad 2

Ad secundum dicendum quod ad ea quae sunt diversa genere ex aequo se habentia, ordinantur diversae potentiae, sicut sonus et color sunt diversa genera sensibilium, ad quae ordinantur auditus et visus. Sed utile et honestum non ex aequo se habent, sed sicut quod est secundum se et secundum alterum. Huiusmodi autem semper referuntur ad eandem potentiam, sicut per potentiam visivam sentitur et color, et lux, per quam color videtur.

Ad 3

Ad tertium dicendum quod non quidquid diversificat habitum, diversificat potentiam, habitus enim sunt quaedam determinationes potentiarum ad aliquos speciales actus. Et tamen quaelibet ars operativa considerat et finem et id quod est ad finem. Nam ars gubernativa considerat quidem finem, ut quem operatur, id autem quod est ad finem, ut quod imperat. E contra vero navifactiva considerat id quod est ad finem, ut quod operatur, id vero quod est finis, ut ad quod ordinat id quod operatur. Et iterum in unaquaque arte operativa est aliquis finis proprius, et aliquid quod est ad finem, quod proprie ad illam artem pertinet.